The articles "Media Convergence" by Michael Latzer, "Maximizing Value: Economic and Cultural Synergies" by Nathan Vaughan, and Henry Jenkins' "Pop Cosmopolitanism: Mapping Cultural Flows in an Age of Media Convergence" all deal with convergence and synergies within the media industries. This essay will first look at what is actually meant by 'convergence' and what the different types of convergence are, then it will do the same for synergy, and the process of doing so will also discuss the effects and consequences of convergence and synergy within the media industries.
Latzer first states that "'convergence' is an ambiguous term used by various disciplines to describe and analyse processes of change toward uniformity or union," (Latzer 123) and media convergence more specifically can be considered "concern[ing] the blurring of boundaries between traditional sub-sectors of communications" (Latzer 131-132). According to Latzer, this process is "central to the formation of a digital creative economy (Latzer 123-124). An example can be one provider offering a telephone, television, and internet connection as one package. Jenkins sees media convergence as "an ongoing process occurring at various intersections between media technologies, industries, content, and audiences," (Jenkins 154) and furthermore, it "enable[s] consumers to archive, annotate, transform, and recirculate media content" by introducing "new media technologies" and therefore "alters the relationship between existing technologies, industries, markets, genres, and audiences (Jenkins 155).
According to Latzer, there are four categories of convergence that are instrumental to understand the digital creative economy. He first mentions technological convergence, which, simply put, makes it possible for several networks to be integrated - such as a smart phone on which one could watch TV - because technological codes and process are becoming universal and shared by different platforms. The second category as mentioned by Latzer is economic convergence. This includes media companies now being active on multiple platforms instead of focusing on only one such as television. The American Verizon is one prime example of economic convergence: the telecommunication company is active in phone, internet and cable TV, and aside from offering services, it also provides the hardware to enable the user to receive them. Traditional media companies are trying to change with the times because their old business models are no longer working, which leads to experimentation and reorganization within media companies. The third convergence category is political convergence and concerns the change in policy making now that different types of media and communication are merging together (Latzer 128-129). The final category by Latzer is socio-cultural convergence, which "is linked to the digital creative economy" and concerns "the impact of convergence on media culture" (Latzer 129). Jenkins adds corporate convergence and grassroots convergence to the several types of convergence as discussed by Latzer (Jenkins 155). Corporate convergence is linked to economic convergence as it is defined by multinational conglomerations that own different types of media companies and platforms and therefore want to be sure that their content flows across the different platforms and countries in which they are active in order to make as much profit as possible (Jenkins 155). This is where synergy as discussed by Vaughan comes into play, which will be discussed later on. Grassroots convergence is a bottom-up process as, due to the digital age, consumers are now part of "shaping the production, distribution, and reception of media content" (Jenkins 155). The two types of convergence together produce global convergence as cultural goods are now being spread all over the world in multiple directions (Jenkins 155). In short, media convergence concerns the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences in the search for the kind of entertainment experience that they want.
American children, Jenkins suggests, may be more familiar with the Japanese Pokémon than with the German Grimm Brothers (157). This is the result of Asian media companies thinking globally and distributing their product in the West, and of the Western media companies’ approach “if you can’t beat them, merge with them” (Jenkins 157-8). Using Iwabuchi’s deodorization of imported goods, national producers of media according to Jenkins aim specifically at delivering the cultural “fragrance” as source, amongst other, of national pride (Jenkins 158-9); one example could be Bollywood movies, with their unique lavish settings, songs and choreographies. The big Asian conglomerates importing franchises in the West might strip their product of specific cultural references by means of dubbing or recasting (Jenkins 158-9). Their product might be censored to suit a different audience by the Western translators and distributors, like in the case of Sailor Moon: characters had their names, gender, (implied) sexuality modified; entire episodes were altered; the soundtrack and even the transformation scenes were modified, and this phenomenon varied in degree according to national differences (McNally). There seems to be a recent backlash of this practice, that can fit in with Jenkins’ speculation regarding audience: the children that were targeted by Japanese media companies at the beginning of their aggressive marketing are now adults. According to Jenkins, American teens chose to express themselves through the consumption of foreign movies and comic books because they are able to distinguish themselves from their parents this way. These teens, so called Pop-Cosmopolitans, do not have any in-depth knowledge about the culture they are consuming but encountering different cultures might, according to Jenkins, add to a greater respect for different cultural identities in today's society.
Japanese media, specifically anime and manga, are pop culture now - manga conventions are a popular phenomenon in the US and Europe alike. The increased use of the internet allows fans to look for more: unofficial translations or even raw scanlations of the original Japanese comic. Together with Crunchyroll, plenty of websites offer subtitles to new anime series, one weekly episode at the time, keeping the cultural fragrance. Maintaining the Japanese identity is one selling point today: accurate translation and notes, original names and original left-to-right reading are features of the “never before been available in the US” Codename: Sailor V (“Codename”). The same applies for (Pretty Guardian) Sailor Moon, which is “completely true to the original” (“Sailor”). Together with the manga volumes, a live action series and a brand new anime series have joined the franchise. The new anime, Sailor Moon Crystal, is legally available for streaming on Crunchyroll. The opening song is performed by Momoiro Clover Z, a girl band signed under a label that belongs to King Records, a subcompany of Kodansha. Considering the increased international collaborations of the band (with KISS and Lady GaGa, amongst others) one can thank media convergence for their popularity boost and free advertising.
In case of niche audiences, Jenkins suggests that artists might start with a very local identity, but may lose or alter it in case the company thinks the artist will have global success (Jenkins 158).
The aforementioned synergy, as discussed by Vaughan, can also be seen as a type of convergence and is both economic and cultural. It is economic in the sense that corporations are spreading out risks and chances of being profitable over multiple different types of media companies and even over multiple industries, see the above example of the Sailor Moon opening song, that can stand as Momoiro Clover Z single in case the anime is not successful (and vice versa). A strategy in trying to achieve large profits can be releasing multiple products at once that fall into different categories but promote each other in order to achieve as large an audience as possible, such as movies with accompanying merchandise. An example of this can be the Harry Potter franchise. It all started with a book series, but Warner Bros. bought the movie rights and built an entire franchise made of videogames, toys, stationery and clothing, even a theme park, and tours of filming locations by which it crosses over into the tourism industry. Synergy has not only an economic aspect but also a cultural aspect. Due to the fact that synergy causes multiple types of products to be released at once in order to promote each other, they "penetrate into all facets of daily life" and can be considered to "limit the expression of society's ideas, values, and general original creativity" (Vaughan 177). It could be said that this recently happened when the movie Minions was released and there was almost no way to escape the creatures as they were present everywhere in almost every possible shape or form of merchandise and even their own pop-up store in Amsterdam's Kalverstraat. As a result of these processes, concerns have been raised that "our culture may not actually be evolving, but merely recycling" (Wasko qtd. in Vaughan 178).
According to Latzer, there are four categories of convergence that are instrumental to understand the digital creative economy. He first mentions technological convergence, which, simply put, makes it possible for several networks to be integrated - such as a smart phone on which one could watch TV - because technological codes and process are becoming universal and shared by different platforms. The second category as mentioned by Latzer is economic convergence. This includes media companies now being active on multiple platforms instead of focusing on only one such as television. The American Verizon is one prime example of economic convergence: the telecommunication company is active in phone, internet and cable TV, and aside from offering services, it also provides the hardware to enable the user to receive them. Traditional media companies are trying to change with the times because their old business models are no longer working, which leads to experimentation and reorganization within media companies. The third convergence category is political convergence and concerns the change in policy making now that different types of media and communication are merging together (Latzer 128-129). The final category by Latzer is socio-cultural convergence, which "is linked to the digital creative economy" and concerns "the impact of convergence on media culture" (Latzer 129). Jenkins adds corporate convergence and grassroots convergence to the several types of convergence as discussed by Latzer (Jenkins 155). Corporate convergence is linked to economic convergence as it is defined by multinational conglomerations that own different types of media companies and platforms and therefore want to be sure that their content flows across the different platforms and countries in which they are active in order to make as much profit as possible (Jenkins 155). This is where synergy as discussed by Vaughan comes into play, which will be discussed later on. Grassroots convergence is a bottom-up process as, due to the digital age, consumers are now part of "shaping the production, distribution, and reception of media content" (Jenkins 155). The two types of convergence together produce global convergence as cultural goods are now being spread all over the world in multiple directions (Jenkins 155). In short, media convergence concerns the flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences in the search for the kind of entertainment experience that they want.
American children, Jenkins suggests, may be more familiar with the Japanese Pokémon than with the German Grimm Brothers (157). This is the result of Asian media companies thinking globally and distributing their product in the West, and of the Western media companies’ approach “if you can’t beat them, merge with them” (Jenkins 157-8). Using Iwabuchi’s deodorization of imported goods, national producers of media according to Jenkins aim specifically at delivering the cultural “fragrance” as source, amongst other, of national pride (Jenkins 158-9); one example could be Bollywood movies, with their unique lavish settings, songs and choreographies. The big Asian conglomerates importing franchises in the West might strip their product of specific cultural references by means of dubbing or recasting (Jenkins 158-9). Their product might be censored to suit a different audience by the Western translators and distributors, like in the case of Sailor Moon: characters had their names, gender, (implied) sexuality modified; entire episodes were altered; the soundtrack and even the transformation scenes were modified, and this phenomenon varied in degree according to national differences (McNally). There seems to be a recent backlash of this practice, that can fit in with Jenkins’ speculation regarding audience: the children that were targeted by Japanese media companies at the beginning of their aggressive marketing are now adults. According to Jenkins, American teens chose to express themselves through the consumption of foreign movies and comic books because they are able to distinguish themselves from their parents this way. These teens, so called Pop-Cosmopolitans, do not have any in-depth knowledge about the culture they are consuming but encountering different cultures might, according to Jenkins, add to a greater respect for different cultural identities in today's society.
Japanese media, specifically anime and manga, are pop culture now - manga conventions are a popular phenomenon in the US and Europe alike. The increased use of the internet allows fans to look for more: unofficial translations or even raw scanlations of the original Japanese comic. Together with Crunchyroll, plenty of websites offer subtitles to new anime series, one weekly episode at the time, keeping the cultural fragrance. Maintaining the Japanese identity is one selling point today: accurate translation and notes, original names and original left-to-right reading are features of the “never before been available in the US” Codename: Sailor V (“Codename”). The same applies for (Pretty Guardian) Sailor Moon, which is “completely true to the original” (“Sailor”). Together with the manga volumes, a live action series and a brand new anime series have joined the franchise. The new anime, Sailor Moon Crystal, is legally available for streaming on Crunchyroll. The opening song is performed by Momoiro Clover Z, a girl band signed under a label that belongs to King Records, a subcompany of Kodansha. Considering the increased international collaborations of the band (with KISS and Lady GaGa, amongst others) one can thank media convergence for their popularity boost and free advertising.
In case of niche audiences, Jenkins suggests that artists might start with a very local identity, but may lose or alter it in case the company thinks the artist will have global success (Jenkins 158).
The aforementioned synergy, as discussed by Vaughan, can also be seen as a type of convergence and is both economic and cultural. It is economic in the sense that corporations are spreading out risks and chances of being profitable over multiple different types of media companies and even over multiple industries, see the above example of the Sailor Moon opening song, that can stand as Momoiro Clover Z single in case the anime is not successful (and vice versa). A strategy in trying to achieve large profits can be releasing multiple products at once that fall into different categories but promote each other in order to achieve as large an audience as possible, such as movies with accompanying merchandise. An example of this can be the Harry Potter franchise. It all started with a book series, but Warner Bros. bought the movie rights and built an entire franchise made of videogames, toys, stationery and clothing, even a theme park, and tours of filming locations by which it crosses over into the tourism industry. Synergy has not only an economic aspect but also a cultural aspect. Due to the fact that synergy causes multiple types of products to be released at once in order to promote each other, they "penetrate into all facets of daily life" and can be considered to "limit the expression of society's ideas, values, and general original creativity" (Vaughan 177). It could be said that this recently happened when the movie Minions was released and there was almost no way to escape the creatures as they were present everywhere in almost every possible shape or form of merchandise and even their own pop-up store in Amsterdam's Kalverstraat. As a result of these processes, concerns have been raised that "our culture may not actually be evolving, but merely recycling" (Wasko qtd. in Vaughan 178).
Discussion Idea:
Media convergence and synergy can cause sameness, but pop-cosmopolitanism charts audience liking, and it’s a global map still to discover.
Authors: DL, EH, LD, KH, NS
Works Cited
- “Codename: Sailor V.” Kodansha Comics. Kodansha Advanced Media, n.d. Web. 13 Sept.2015.
- Jenkins, Henry. "Pop Cosmopolitanism : Mapping Cultural Flows in an Age of Media Convergence." Fans Bloggers and Gamers : Exploring Participatory Culture. New York: New York UP, 2006. 152-72. Print.
- Latzer, Michael. "Media Convergence." Handbook on the Digital Creative Economy. Ed. Ruth Towse and Christian Handle. N.p.: Edward Elgar Pub, 2014. 123-33. Print.
- McNally, Victoria. “A Ridiculously Comprehensive History of Sailor Moon, Part 2: Coming to America.” The Mary Sue. The Mary Sue, 25 Jun. 2014. Web. 14 Sept. 2015.
- “Sailor Moon.” Kodansha Comics. Kodansha Advanced Media, n.d. Web. 13 Sept. 2015.
- Vaughan, Nathan. "Maximizing Value Economic and Cultural Synergies." The Handbook of Political Economy of Communications. Ed. Janet Wasko, Graham Murdock, and Helen Sousa. N.p.: Blackwell, 2011. 169-86. Print.
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